Numerous inquiry strategies (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005), inquiry traditions (Creswell, 1998), qualitative approaches (Miller & Crabtree, 1992), and design types (Creswell, 2007) are available for selec- qualitative research (Chase, 2005), with a specific focus on the stories individuals tell (Polkinghorne, 1995). In their original treatise on grounded theory, Glaser and Strauss (1967: p. 61) defined saturation in these terms: The criterion for judging when to stop sampling the different groups pertinent to a category is the categorys theoretical saturation. British journal of Nursing 16 (11). However, despite having apparently attained something of the status of orthodoxy, saturation is defined within the literature in varying waysor is sometimes undefinedand raises a number of problematic conceptual and methodological issues (Dey 1999; Bowen 2008; OReilly and Parker 2013). 182 0 obj <> endobj Thousand Oaks: Sage; 2005. pp. However, our focus here is on its use in primary studies. Another indication of an ambivalent view taken on saturation is suggested by Masons (2010) observation that sample sizes in studies based on interviews are commonly multiples of ten. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips. Life Outcomes 11, 192 (2013), Nelson, J.: Using conceptual depth criteria: addressing the challenge of reaching saturation in qualitative research. 107, 189195 (2014), Kazley, A.S., Johnson, E., Simpson, K., Chavin, K., Baliga, P.: African American patient knowledge of kidney disease: a qualitative study of those with advanced chronic kidney disease. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, Relates to the development of theoretical categories; related to grounded theory methodology, Relates to the emergence of new codes or themes, Relates to the degree to which identified codes or themes are exemplified in the data, Relates to the degree to which new data repeat what was expressed in previous data. 22(12), 3741 (2012), Zhao, X., Davey, G.: Contesting modernity: tobacco use and romanticism among older Dai farmers in Xishuangbanna, China. Google Scholar, Boddy, C.R. Qual. Drisko JW. Sociology Press, Mill Valley (1992), Glaser, B.G., Strauss, A.L. In: de Chesnay M, editor. The authors state: Of the 39 participants, six did not complete a second interview because they were unavailable, impaired, or the research team felt the first interview had achieved saturation (p. 2035), suggesting that judgments of saturation were made within each participants account. Research Methods in Education, Sixth edition, Routledge. [Google Scholar] Charmaz K. Grounded theory as an emergent method. LONDON AND NEW YORK. It is commonly taken to indicate that, on the basis of (Charmaz 2005), or of the adequacy of theory development Denzin, N.K., Lincoln, Y.S. Extending previous literature that has highlighted the variability in the use of saturation (OReilly and Parker 2013; Walker 2012), we have scrutinized the different ways in which it has been operationalized in the research literature, identifying four models of saturation, each of which appears to make different core assumptions about what saturation is, and about what exactly is being saturated. Aiken et al. 139169. These perspectives can easily occur even on the final day of study or even when the manuscript is reviewed in page proof; so the published word is not the final one, but only a pause in the never-ending process of generating theory. 2014: p. 2; Middlemiss et al. However, interpretations at this stage regarding what might constitute a theme, before even beginning to consider whether identified themes are saturated, will be superficial at best. Thousand Oaks: Sage; 2005. pp. Francis et al. J. Adv. In a focus group study of HIV perceptions in Ghana, Ganle (2016) used the notion of saturation to determine when each focus group discussion should terminate. Can. Springer, New York (2015), OReilly, M., Parker, N.: Unsatisfactory saturation: a critical exploration of the notion of saturated sample sizes in qualitative research. Such a decision would seem, however, to relate to only a very preliminary stage of analysis and is likely to be driven by only a rudimentary sense of any emergent theory. 2015; Jackson et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0574-8, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0574-8. 2016). -)Yhm, @"l(Q@rWJ3=wc>I&$ FSNa4MB6qvpbvL2$ >v 4BcabNSQ$1q@W;fFX2: $2?$JhBt'xd1fnbE8#zVh>-l;lm4a"/Bxk,4\vE5LE42?:vNg+rS5~1g"-RaF&af#./YSTwpm 6s&U"0HbVj%XS":=m^a8f0 bz@Mq!h q]U~MeUQ$Ad.g`8NiwC.gD{r:\}Y>]o:.aB/dSRwWep. They suggest that saturation should be more concerned with reaching the point where further data collection becomes counter-productive, and where the new does not necessarily add anything to the overall story or theory. Int. Grounded theory involves the application of inductive reasoning.The methodology contrasts with the hypothetico You can download the paper by clicking the button above. 64(3), 509520 (2007), Power, T., Jackson, D., Carter, B., Weaver, R.: Misunderstood as mothers: womens stories of being hospitalized for illness in the postpartum period. qualitative research on particular contexts and their meaning for the participants in. (ed.) The question will then be how much saturation is enough?, rather than has saturation occurred?Footnote 7 This is a less straightforward question, but one that much better highlights the fact that this can only be a matter of the analysts decisionsaturation is an ongoing, cumulative judgment that one makes, and perhaps never completes,Footnote 8 rather than something that can be pinpointed at a specific juncture. In: Denzin NK, Lincoln YS, editors. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. digms that can serve as foundations for qualitative research. In: de Chesnay, M. Dede Putri. This paper has been informed by discussions with members of the social sciences group of the Institute for Primary Care and Health Sciences at Keele University. Psychol. Critical issues in qualitative research methods.. On this incremental reading of saturation, the analysis does not suddenly become rich or insightful after that one additional interview, but presumably becomes richer or more insightful. Q ualitative research is defined as an umbrella term covering an array of interpretative techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world.1,2. Carolyn Ellis, Tony E. Adams & Arthur P. Bochner. The first logic is counter-inductivefuture non-occurrences of data, codes or theoretical insights are posited on the basis of prior occurrences. (2012: p. 859), who talk of looking for novel aspects after the achievement of saturation, and Poletti et al. Sociology Press, Mill Valley (1978), Glaser, B.G. 0000051848 00000 n Thus, rather curiously, they propose that it does not hurt to include all interviews from the initial sampling (2017: p. 13). Similar points are made by Kennedy et al. Tutton E, Seers K, Langstaff D, Westwood M. Staff and patient views of the concept of hope on a stroke unit: a qualitative study. Whilst the focus remains at the level of analysis, the decision to be made appears to relate to the emergence of new codes or themes, rather than the degree of development of those already identified. (2010), Hennink et al. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Sage, Thousand Oaks (2005), Charmaz, K.: Grounded theory as an emergent method. Saturation has attained widespread acceptance as a methodological principle in qualitative research. Mason, M.: Sample size and saturation in PhD studies using qualitative interviews. argue that an approach to saturation relying only on the number of codes misses the point of saturation (2017: p. 15) owing to a lack of understanding of the meaning of these codes. He thus argues that conceptual depth may be a more appropriate termat least from a grounded theory perspectivewhereby the researcher considers whether sufficient depth of understanding has been achieved in relation to emergent theoretical categories. not too few interviews, rather than saturation aiding decisions about the adequacy of the sample. Goulding C. Grounded theory, ethnography and phenomenology: a comparative analysis of three qualitative strategies for marketing research. Guest et al. Health Res. J. Nurs. In: Given, L.M. Drawing on recent examples of its use, saturation has been discussed in relation to three key sets of questions: What? : Data were saturated. However, Morse also proposes that saturation is lacking when there are too few examples in each category to identify the characteristics of concepts, and to develop theory (Morse 2015: p. 588). For example, Hill et al. Fusch and Ness 2015).6 This view of saturation seems to centre on the question of how much data (usually number of interviews) is needed until nothing new is apparent, or what Sandelowski (2008: p. 875) calls informational redundancy (e.g. Numerous inquiry strategies (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005), inquiry traditions (Creswell, 1998), qualitative approaches (Miller & Crabtree, 1992), and design types (Creswell, 2007) are available for selec- qualitative research (Chase, 2005), with a specific focus on the stories individuals tell (Polkinghorne, 1995). PDF | On Jan 1, 2012, K. Haynes published Reflexivity in qualitative research | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Strauss and Corbin (1998: p. 136), however, talk about saturation as a matter of degree, arguing that there will always be the potential for the new to emerge. sources of data that may question or disconfirm aspects of the emergent theory) the logic becomes more tenuousa statement about the unobserved based on the unobserved.11 In either case, an uncertain predictive claim is made about the nature of data yet to be collected, and furthermore a claim that could only be tested if the decision to halt data collection were to be overturned. They suggest that saturation should be more concerned with reaching the point where further data collection becomes counter-productive, and where the new does not necessarily add anything to the overall story or theory. (ed.) (eds.) Qual. 13(2), 190197 (2013), Otmar, R., Kotowicz, M.A., Nicholson, G.C., Pasco, J.A. 68(9), 20612069 (2012), Urquhart, C.: Grounded Theory for Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide. However, whilst considering saturation in incremental terms may increase researchers confidence in making claims to it, we suggest it is only through due consideration of the specific purpose for which saturation is being used, and what one is hoping to saturate, that the uncertainty around the concept can be resolved. Health Res. 0000030948 00000 n (eds.) Saturation has attained widespread acceptance as a methodological principle in qualitative research. CJ is partly funded by NIHR Collaborations for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care West Midlands (CLAHRC, West Midlands); the views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. 2016). Strauss and Corbin (1998: p. 136), however, talk about saturation as a matter of degree, arguing that there will always be the potential for the new to emerge. Caring 12(4), 2125 (2008), Francis, J.J., Johnston, M., Robertson, C., Glidewell, L., Entwhistle, V., Eccles, M.P., Grimshaw, J.M. Med. Saturation has attained widespread acceptance as a methodological principle in qualitative research. On this incremental reading of saturation, the analysis does not suddenly become rich or insightful after that one additional interview, but presumably becomes richer or more insightful. The authors state: Of the 39 participants, six did not complete a second interview because they were unavailable, impaired, or the research team felt the first interview had achieved saturation (p. 2035), suggesting that judgments of saturation were made within each participants account. The same issue is relevant with regard to a number of other, less obvious, purposes that have been proposed for saturation. Forum Qual. The data are generally nonnumerical. The second model takes a similar approach, but saturation focuses on the identification of new codes or themes, and is based on the number of such codes or themes rather than the completeness of existing theoretical categories. These examples suggest a view that there is something of theoretical importance that is not captured by saturation, though it is unclear from the explanations given as to exactly what this is.9. Carolyn Ellis, Tony E. Adams & Arthur P. Bochner. Accordingly, Marshall and Long (2010) suggest that saturation was not appropriate in their study of maternal coping processes, based on narrative methods. Health Res. This too suggests a form of data saturation. This too suggests a form of data saturation. (2016) sought saturation during their analysis, but also state (p. 843) that: An a priori sample size of 30 to 40 was selected based on recommendations for qualitative studies of this nature and the anticipated complexity and desired level of depth for our research questions. (2003) seem to adopt a narrower, more individual-oriented perspective on data saturation, whereby saturation operates not at the level of the dataset as a whole, but in relation to the data provided by an individual participant; i.e. 32(2), 327334 (2000), France, N.E.M., Farrell, K., Kearney, B., Myatt, S.: Women living with fibromyalgia: do no harm. Sci. will also be available for a limited time. In narrative research, a role for saturation is harder to discern. 37(8), 11731190 (2015). 4 0 obj Accordingly, researchers who confidently propose saturation as a criterion for sampling at the outset of a study may become less certain as to how it should be operationalized once the study is in progress, and may therefore be reluctant to abide by it. Field Methods 18(1), 5982 (2006), Hale, E.D., Treharne, G.J., Kitas, G.D.: Qualitative methodologies II: a brief guide to applying interpretative phenomenological analysis in musculoskeletal care. For completeness we chose to fully recruit to all participant groups to reduce the chance of missed themes. Critical issues in qualitative research methods.. (2016) sought saturation during their analysis, but also state (p. 843) that: An a priori sample size of 30 to 40 was selected based on recommendations for qualitative studies of this nature and the anticipated complexity and desired level of depth for our research questions. They firstly identify code saturation, the point at which no additional issues are identified and the codebook begins to stabilize (2017: p. 4), which seems to combine elements of both inductive thematic saturation and data saturation. 3. In: Denzin, N, Lincoln, YS (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research, second ed. Aiken ARA, Dillaway C, Mevs-Korff N. A blessing I cant afford: factors underlying the paradox of happiness about unintended pregnancy. The same issue is relevant with regard to a number of other, less obvious, purposes that have been proposed for saturation. In such studies, analysis tends to focus more on strands within individual accounts rather than on analytical themes; these strands are essentially continuous, whereas themes are essentially recurrent. However, focusing on the emergence or otherwise of codes rather than on their theoretical development still points us towards saturation being achieved at a relatively early stage. These students know their data (Morse 2015: p. 588). J. When and how?at what stage in the research is saturation sought, and how can we assess if it has been achieved? Thus, in their attempt to establish an adequate sample size for saturation, Francis et al. J. Adv. Methodological reflections on using pilot data from fracture patients to develop a qualitative study. the inductive thematic saturation and theoretical saturation models outlined above), saturation suggests the extent to which new codes or themes are identified within the data, and/or the extent to which new theoretical insights are gained from the data via this process. Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. As he sees similar instances over and over again, the researcher becomes empirically confident that a category is saturated. Middlemiss T, Lloyd-Williams M, Laird BJ, Fallon MT. 2015), suggesting that it should be thought of as a discrete event that can be recognized as such by the analyst. qualitative research on particular contexts and their meaning for the participants in. In a largely deductive approach (i.e. Accessibility Four different models of saturation seem therefore to exist (Table1). 65(10), 20312042 (2007), Hennink, M.M., Kaiser, B.N., Marconi, V.C. An experiment with data saturation and variability. (Stevenson, 2005). Julius Sim. (2012: p. 858) report that they exceeded saturation as this appeared to be more ethical than purposefully choosing individuals to re-interview, or only interviewing until saturation. In this model, saturation appears confined to the level of analysis; its implication for data collection is at best implicit. Nursing Research Using Grounded Theory: Qualitative Designs and Methods in Nursing. Med. A similar position regarding the (non)emergence of new codes or themes has been taken by others (e.g. Are we there yet? In a number of studies, saturation is claimed, but further data collection takes place in an apparent attempt to confirm (Jassim and Whitford 2014: p. 191; Forsberg et al. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994:15985. Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer. It is commonly taken to indicate that, on the basis of the data that have been collected or analysed hitherto, further data collection and/or analysis are unnecessary. Health Res. Nurs. (eds.) Sci. Rep. 21(11), 21242130 (2016), Hawkins, R.L., Abrams, C.: Disappearing acts: the social networks of formerly homeless individuals with co-occurring disorders. We describe it here as a specific Analysis was thematic, and it is not clear whether saturation was determined in relation to themes across participants stories, or within individual stories. 0000029196 00000 n (2006), Francis et al. When used in a deductive approach to analysis, saturation serves to demonstrate the extent to which the data instantiate previously determined conceptual categories, whereas in more inductive approaches, and grounded theory in particular, it says something about the adequacy of sampling in relation to theory development (although we have seen that there are differing accounts of how specifically this should be achieved). Furthermore, a reluctance to rely on evidence of saturation sometimes indicates that saturation is being used in at best an unclear, or at worst an inconsistent or incoherent, fashion. Sage, London (2015), Bloor, M., Wood, F.: Keywords in Qualitative Methods: A Vocabulary of Research Concepts. He thus argues that conceptual depth may be a more appropriate termat least from a grounded theory perspectivewhereby the researcher considers whether sufficient depth of understanding has been achieved in relation to emergent theoretical categories. Int. Careers. Morse (2015: p. 587) takes the view that saturation is present in all qualitative research and as previously noted, it is commonly considered as the gold standard for determining sample size in qualitative research, with little distinction between different types of qualitative research. Critical Issues in Qualitative Research Methods, pp. Similarly, Jackson et al. Qual. : The use of saturation in qualitative research. Correspondence to <<7541911038107B47A6A34DEB032499E4>]>> Dede Putri. She links saturation with the idea of replication, in a way that suggests a process of data saturation: However, when the domain has been fully sampled when all data have been collected then replication of data occurs and, with this replication the signal of saturation (Morse 1995: p. 148). qualitative research. Rawezh Ibrahim. All authors declare to have no conflicts of interest. Whilst the above suggests ambivalence towards assessing the point at which saturation is achieved, others report having made the conscious decision to continue sampling beyond saturation, appearing to seek additional objective evidence to bolster their sampling decisions. Qual. 26(6), 842850 (2016), Olshansky, E.F.: Generating theory using grounded theory methodology. In this paper, we look to clarify the nature, purposes and uses of saturation, and in doing so add to theoretical debate on the role of saturation across different methodologies. Sage, Thousand Oaks (2008), Sparkes, E., Duarte, R.V., Raphael, J.H., Denny, E., Ashford, R.L. (2007: p. 511), who propose the need to fill gaps in the data following saturation. Taylor & Francis Group. In: Denzin, N, Lincoln, YS (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research, second ed. For instance, in investigating staff and patient views on a stroke unit, Tutton et al. 3It should be noted that Birks and Mills (2015) also state that, as part of theoretical saturation, Categories are clearly articulated with sharply defined and dimensionalized properties, suggesting a somewhat broader view of saturation, in which the nature of emerging themes is important, rather than just the fact of their (non)emergence. However, it may also arise from the specific but somewhat uncertain logic that underlies saturation. 8(1), 137152 (2008), Bryman, A.: How many qualitative interviews is enough? Data saturation in qualitative research. With regard to the second model identified, inductive thematic saturation, the fact that the focus is more explicitly on reaching saturation at the level of analysisi.e. It is commonly taken to indicate that, on the basis of (Charmaz 2005), or of the adequacy of theory development Denzin, N.K., Lincoln, Y.S. Coughlan M., Cronin P. and Ryan F. (2007). Hennink et al. Sparkes E, Duarte RV, Raphael JH, Denny E, Ashford RL. (2017). We conclude that saturation should be operationalized in a way that is consistent with the research question(s), and the theoretical position and analytic framework adopted, but also that there should be some limit to its scope, so as not to risk saturation losing its coherence and potency if its conceptualization and uses are stretched too widely. FOIA (1998). Here, the decision to be made relates to further sampling, and the determinant of adequate sampling has to do with the degree of development of a theoretical category in the process of analysis. one that relies wholly or predominantly on applying pre-identified codes, themes or other analytical categories to the data, rather than allowing these to emerge inductively) saturation may refer to the extent to which pre-determined codes or themes are adequately represented in the datarather like the idea of the categories being sufficiently replete with instances, or examples, of data, as suggested in the a priori thematic saturation model outlined above. Zhao X, Davey G. Contesting modernity: tobacco use and romanticism among older Dai farmers in Xishuangbanna, China. However, there appears to be uncertainty as to how saturation should be conceptualized, and inconsistencies in its use. Fusch and Ness (2015: p. 1408) claim categorically that failure to reach saturation has an impact on the quality of the research conducted;Footnote 2 Morse (2015: p. 587) notes that saturation is the most frequently touted guarantee of qualitative rigor offered by authors; and Guest et al. In this model, saturation appears confined to the level of analysis; its implication for data collection is at best implicit. LONDON AND NEW YORK. Bloor and Wood (2006: p. 165) suggest that this tendency may stem from researchers feeling obliged to abide by sample sizes previously declared to funding bodies or ethics committees, whilst making claims to saturation in order to retain a sense of methodological credibility. When and how? Qualitative research relies on data obtained by the researcher from first-hand observation, interviews, questionnaires (on which participants write descriptively), focus groups, participant-observation, recordings made in natural settings, documents, case studies, and artifacts. 155170. Malterud K, Siersma VD, Guassora AD. Hancock ME, Amankwaa L, Revell MA, Mueller D. Focus group data saturation: a new approach to data analysis. 8This reflects Glaser and Strausss (1967: p. 40) view of theory generation: one is constantly alert to emergent perspectives that will change and help develop his theory. Q ualitative research is defined as an umbrella term covering an array of interpretative techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world.1,2. Qualitative exploration of psychological factors associated with spinal cord stimulation outcome. Health Res. In the third model, a reversal of the preceding logic is suggested, whereby data is collected so as to exemplify theory, at the level of lower-order codes or themes, rather than to develop or refine theory. Health Res. UGM+_arP*Cb ?z&6,3TD69pY79g } AA!cK'M2zfkhX9IW%80KpZbKd5td-LuP2cR'TL&nb*;u!\SK-i1(H]$?=?j9]6aj*.{ {SJdPcJrELpYXxK%Z,. 0 In: JM Morse, editor. 68(4), 856867 (2012), Legard, R., Keegan, J., Ward, K.: In-depth interviews. McNulty et al. Extending previous literature that has highlighted the variability in the use of saturation (OReilly and Parker 2013; Walker 2012), we have scrutinized the different ways in which it has been operationalized in the research literature, identifying four models of saturation, each of which appears to make different core assumptions about what saturation is, and about what exactly is being saturated. Qualitative research may be located in any one of three paradigms, positivist, interpretivist, and critical (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003; Punch, 1998). Soc. This uncertainty appears to give rise to inconsistencies and contradictions in its use, which we would argue could be resolved, at least in part, if saturation were to be considered as a matter of degree, rather than simply as something either attained or unattained.

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